Thomas Jefferson 1801-1809

In the thick of party conflict in 1800, Thomas Jefferson wrote in a private letter, "I have sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man." This powerful advocate of liberty was born in 1743 in Albemarle County, Virginia, inheriting from his father, a planter and surveyor, some 5,000 acres of land, and from his mother, a Randolph, high social standing. He studied at the College of William and Mary, then read law. In 1772 he married Martha Wayles Skelton, a widow, and took her to live in his partly constructed mountaintop home, Monticello.

Freckled and sandy-haired, rather tall and awkward, Jefferson was eloquent as a correspondent, but he was no public speaker. In the Virginia House of Burgesses and the Continental Congress, he contributed his pen rather than his voice to the patriot cause. As the "silent member" of the Congress, Jefferson, at 33, drafted the Declaration of Independence. In years following he labored to make its words a reality in Virginia. Most notably, he wrote a bill establishing religious freedom, enacted in 1786.

Jefferson succeeded Benjamin Franklin as minister to France in 1785. His sympathy for the French Revolution led him into conflict with Alexander Hamilton when Jefferson was Secretary of State in President Washington's Cabinet. He resigned in 1793.

Sharp political conflict developed, and two separate parties, the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans, began to form. Jefferson gradually assumed leadership of the Republicans, who sympathized with the revolutionary cause in France. Attacking Federalist policies, he opposed a strong centralized Government and championed the rights of states.

As a reluctant candidate for President in 1796, Jefferson came within three votes of election. Through a flaw in the Constitution, he became Vice President, although an opponent of President Adams. In 1800 the defect caused a more serious problem. Republican electors, attempting to name both a President and a Vice President from their own party, cast a tie vote between Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The House of Representatives settled the tie. Hamilton, disliking both Jefferson and Burr, nevertheless urged Jefferson's election.

When Jefferson assumed the Presidency, the crisis in France had passed. He slashed Army and Navy expenditures, cut the budget, eliminated the tax on whiskey so unpopular in the West, yet reduced the national debt by a third. He also sent a naval squadron to fight the Barbary pirates, who were harassing American commerce in the Mediterranean. Further, although the Constitution made no provision for the acquisition of new land, Jefferson suppressed his qualms over constitutionality when he had the opportunity to acquire the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon in 1803.

During Jefferson's second term, he was increasingly preoccupied with keeping the Nation from involvement in the Napoleonic wars, though both England and France interfered with the neutral rights of American merchantmen. Jefferson's attempted solution, an embargo upon American shipping, worked badly and was unpopular.

Jefferson retired to Monticello to ponder such projects as his grand designs for the University of Virginia. A French nobleman observed that he had placed his house and his mind "on an elevated situation, from which he might contemplate the universe."
He died on July 4, 1826.

JOHN ADAMS 1797-1801

Learned and thoughtful, John Adams was more remarkable as a political philosopher than as a politician. "People and nations are forged in the fires of adversity," he said, doubtless thinking of his own as well as the American experience.

Adams was born in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1735. A Harvard-educated lawyer, he early became identified with the patriot cause; a delegate to the First and Second Continental Congresses, he led in the movement for independence.

During the Revolutionary War he served in France and Holland in diplomatic roles, and helped negotiate the treaty of peace. From 1785 to 1788 he was minister to the Court of St. James's, returning to be elected Vice President under George Washington.
Adams' two terms as Vice President were frustrating experiences for a man of his vigor, intellect, and vanity. He complained to his wife Abigail, "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived."

When Adams became President, the war between the French and British was causing great difficulties for the United States on the high seas and intense partisanship among contending factions within the Nation.

His administration focused on France, where the Directory, the ruling group, had refused to receive the American envoy and had suspended commercial relations.
Adams sent three commissioners to France, but in the spring of 1798 word arrived that the French Foreign Minister Talleyrand and the Directory had refused to negotiate with them unless they would first pay a substantial bribe. Adams reported the insult to Congress, and the Senate printed the correspondence, in which the Frenchmen were referred to only as "X, Y, and Z."

The Nation broke out into what Jefferson called "the X. Y. Z. fever," increased in intensity by Adams's exhortations. The populace cheered itself hoarse wherever the
President appeared. Never had the Federalists been so popular.

Congress appropriated money to complete three new frigates and to build additional ships, and authorized the raising of a provisional army. It also passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, intended to frighten foreign agents out of the country and to stifle the attacks of Republican editors.

President Adams did not call for a declaration of war, but hostilities began at sea. At first, American shipping was almost defenseless against French privateers, but by 1800 armed merchantmen and U.S. warships were clearing the sea-lanes.

Despite several brilliant naval victories, war fever subsided. Word came to Adams that France also had no stomach for war and would receive an envoy with respect. Long negotiations ended the quasi war.

Sending a peace mission to France brought the full fury of the Hamiltonians against Adams. In the campaign of 1800 the Republicans were united and effective, the Federalists badly divided. Nevertheless, Adams polled only a few less electoral votes than Jefferson, who became President.

On November 1, 1800, just before the election, Adams arrived in the new Capital City to take up his residence in the White House. On his second evening in its damp, unfinished rooms, he wrote his wife, "Before I end my letter, I pray Heaven to bestow the best of Blessings on this House and all that shall hereafter inhabit it. May none but honest and wise Men ever rule under this roof."

Adams retired to his farm in Quincy. Here he penned his elaborate letters to Thomas Jefferson. Here on July 4, 1826, he whispered his last words: "Thomas Jefferson survives." But Jefferson had died at Monticello a few hours earlier.

SADDAM LEADER OF IRAQ

(born April 28, 1937, Tikrt, Iraq—died Dec. 30, 2006, Baghdad) president of Iraq (1979–2003), whose brutal rule was marked by costly and unsuccessful wars against neighbouring countries.
addm was born into a peasant family in northern Iraq. He joined the Ba'th Party in 1957. In 1959 he participated in an unsuccessful attempt by Ba'thists to assassinate the Iraqi prime minister, 'Abd al-Karm Qsim; wounded in the attempt, addm escaped, first to Syria and then to Egypt. He attended Cairo Law School (1962–63) and continued his studies at Baghdad Law College after the Ba'thists took power in Iraq in 1963. The Ba'thists were overthrown that same year, however, and addm spent several years in prison in Iraq. He escaped, becoming a leader of the Ba'th Party, and was instrumental in the coup that brought the party back to power in 1968. addm effectively held power in Iraq along with the head of state, President Amad asan al-Bakr, and in 1972 he directed the nationalization of Iraq's oil industry.

addm began to assert open control of the government in 1979 and became president upon Bakr's resignation. He then became chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council and prime minister, among other positions. He used an extensive secret-police establishment to suppress any internal opposition to his rule, and he made himself the object of an extensive personality cult among the Iraqi public. His goals as president were to supplant Egypt as leader of the Arab world and to achieve hegemony over the Persian Gulf.

addm launched an invasion of Iran's oil fields in September 1980, but the campaign bogged down in a war of attrition. The cost of the war and the interruption of Iraq's oil exports caused addm to scale down his ambitious programs for economic development. The Iran-Iraq War dragged on in a stalemate until 1988, when both countries accepted a cease-fire that ended the fighting. Despite the large foreign debt with which Iraq found itself saddled by war's end, addm continued to build up his armed forces.

In August 1990 the Iraqi army overran neighbouring Kuwait. addm apparently intended to use that nation's vast oil revenues to bolster Iraq's economy, but his occupation of Kuwait quickly triggered a worldwide trade embargo against Iraq. He ignored appeals to withdraw his forces from Kuwait, despite the buildup of a large U.S.-led military force in Saudi Arabia and the passage of United Nations (UN) resolutions condemning the occupation and authorizing the use of force to end it. The Persian Gulf War began on Jan. 16, 1991, and ended six weeks later when the allied military coalition drove Iraq's armies out of Kuwait. Iraq's crushing defeat triggered internal rebellions by both Sh'ites and Kurds, but addm suppressed their uprisings, causing thousands to flee to refugee camps along the country's northern border. Untold thousands more were murdered, many simply disappearing into the regime's prisons.

SUSILO BAMBANG YUDHOYONO

Name Dr. H. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
Place, date of birth Pacitan, Jawa Timur 9 September 1949
Address Jl. Alternatif Cibubur Puri Cikeas Indah
No. 2 Desa Nagrag Kec. Gunung Putri Bogor - 16967
Religion Islam
Tenure of presidency 2004 - 2009
Latest portfolio Coordinating Minister for Political and Security Affairs,10 August 2001 – 12 March 2004
Marital status Married
Spouse First Lady Mrs. Kristiani Herawati
Offspring:
1. Mr. Agus Harimurti Yudhoyono
2. Mr. Edhie Baskoro Yudhoyono

Education:

1. Indonesian Armed Forces Academy (Akabri), 1973
2. American Language Course, Lackland, Texas, USA, 1976
3. Airborne and Ranger Course, Fort Benning, USA, 1976
4. Infantry Officer Advanced Course, Fort Benning, USA, 1982-1983
5. On the job training at the 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Bragg, USA, 1983
6. Jungle Warfare School, Panama, 1983
7. Antitank Weapon Course di Belgia dan Jerman 1984
8. Battalion Command Course, 1985
9. Indonesian Army Command School, 1988-1989
10. Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, USA
11. Master of Arts (MA) from Management Webster University, Missouri, USA
12. Doctorate (Dr.), Bogor Institute of Agriculture, Indonesia, 2004
    
    

Latest military rank:

Promoted to General (Four Stars) of the Indonesian Armed Forces (TNI), 25 September 2000. Retired from the military service on 10 November 2000.
Previously-held positions at national and international institutions:

• Coordinating Minister for Political and Security Affairs, Cooperation Cabinet, 10/8/2001 12/3/2004 (resigned)
• Coordinating Minister for Political, Social, and Security Affairs, National Unity Cabinet, 26/10/2000-1/6/2001 (discharged)
• Minister of Mining and Energy, Abdurrahman Wahid’s Cabinet, 20/10/1999-26/8/2000
• Chief of the Social and Political Staff of the Indonesian Armed Forces, 16/2/1998- November 1998
• Commander of the Sriwijaya II Military Regional Command, 23/8/1996-26/8/1997
• Chief of Staff of the Greater Jakarta Military Regional Command, March 1996-August 1996
• Chief of the UN Military Watch in Bosnia from the United Nations Peacekeeping Force (UNPF), November 1995-November 1996
• Commander of Pamungkas 072 Military Resort Command, Yogyakarta, 1994-1995
• Operational Assistant of the Greater Jakarta Military Regional Command, 1994
• Commander of 17th Infantry Brigade, Kujang I of the Army Strategic Reserves Command, 1993
• Menko Polkam, August 10, 2001 - March 12, 2004
  

Distinctions:

Bestowed the Adi Mahakarya Medal of Honour by the President of Indonesia in recognition for graduating as the best cadet of the Indonesian Armed Forces Academy in 1973
Graduated with Honours from the IOAC, USA, 1983
Voted as the Most Articulate Speaker of Public Figures, 2003.

STORY

After the fall of President Soeharto in May 1998 Indonesia changed dramatically. Soeharto's Vice-President, B J Habibie, took over the presidency until October 1999, when Abdurrahman Wahid (Gus Dur) was elected. After only 21 months in office Wahid was impeached for alleged involvement in financial scandals and replaced by his Vice-President, Megawati Soekarnoputri, (the daughter of Indonesia's first President, Soekarno) in July 2001. The transition was a peaceful one, which was a promising sign that Indonesia was coming to terms with its new democratic system. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, Megawati's former security minister, was elected President in September 2004 after defeating Megawati in a second-round election run-off. In his inauguration speech he pledged to stimulate the economy, fight corruption, promote peace in Aceh and Papua and prioritise education and health.

There is a continuing threat from terrorism across Indonesia. On 1 October 2005, the second Bali bombing killed 20 people and injured many more. Other attacks against western interests in Jakarta include the Marriot Hotel bombing on 5 August 2003 and the car bomb outside the Australian Embassy on 9 September 2004.

On 12 October 2002 the first Bali bomb led to the deaths of 200 people, including 28 British nationals. The then President Megawati said immediately after the bombings that she was determined to deal with the terrorist threat. A number of countries, including the UK, Australia and the US, are assisting Indonesia with police capacity building and counter terrorism training.
The Indonesian government brokered an agreement (the Malino I Accord) to end fighting between Christian and Muslim factions in Central Sulawesi, which was signed on 20 December 2001. This has brought an end to the large scale inter-communal violence. Low level violence has continued in the region and the area remains volatile with the possibility of violent clashes. The bombing of Tentena, a largely Christian town near Poso in Central Sulawesi, on 28 May 2005 killed 21 people. The central government is working with local communities to bring about stability.

In the Moluccas serious sectarian violence in 2000 and 2001 left thousands dead. On 12 February 2002 the Indonesian government brokered an agreement (the Malino II Accord) between Christian and Muslim factions in Maluku. Despite attempts to incite unrest, there has been some progress on the ground in Ambon and on 15 September 2003 the Indonesian government lifted the state of civil emergency in the Province. However, sporadic clashes still occur.

The peace process in Aceh has been a major achievement of the current Indonesian government. Both parties fulfilled their security obligations under the peace agreement signed in August 2005. The Free Aceh Movement (GAM) handed in 840 weapons for decommissioning, and the Government of Indonesia withdrew all non-local military and police forces. The UK supported the peace process through its participation in the EU-led Aceh Monitoring Mission. Elections were successfully held on 11 December 2006 with a large turnout. Irwandi Yusuf, former GAM member, was elected as Governor of Aceh.

Following the departure of the Dutch and a brief period of UN administration, Indonesia took over the administration of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya) in 1963. Irian Jaya became a province of Indonesia following a UN-supervised Act of Free Choice in 1969, the legitimacy of which is much debated. The Special Autonomy law was passed after consultations with the Papuan people by Gus Dur's government on 1 January 2002. On 27 January 2003, President Megawati issued a Presidential Instruction to split Papua into three provinces. There was concern that this contradicted the Special Autonomy Law, making its implementation difficult. However, on 14 November 2003 the Indonesian government announced the formation of a new province of West Irian Jaya (now referred to as West Papua) in Papua marking the official split of West Papua from the rest of Papua.

In November 2004 the Constitutional Court ruled that the creation of West Irian Jaya was not legal. However the court also stated that the province was a de facto reality and should be recognised. President Yudhoyono reiterated this position in a speech made to the DPD (Regional Government Assembly). The government subsequently issued a regulation on 16 April 2008 which clarifies the status of the province of West Papua and puts it on an equal footing with that of the province of Papua.

Chronology

1945
Declaration of Independence from the Netherlands. First provisional constitution

1949
Formal recognition of Independence from the Netherlands

1955
First national elections; no party secures a majority

1957
President Soekarno declares martial law

1959-65
Period of 'Guided Democracy'

1965
Limited coup by junior army officers against the high command crushed by General Soeharto; thousands of Indonesians died in the aftermath

1967
Soeharto becomes acting President in March (full President in March 1968)

1975
Indonesia takes over East Timor

1997
Start of Asian financial crisis

1998
21 May - Soeharto resigns to be succeeded by his Vice President Habibie

1999
7 June - Free and fair multi-party elections. Megawati Soekarnoputri's Democratic Party (PDI-P) polls 34% of the votes and Golkar (the former ruling party) 23%
30 August - East Timor Popular Consultation. 79% vote against autonomy and so implicitly for independence
20 September - multinational troops enter East Timor and Indonesia cedes control
20 October - MPR selects Abdurrahman Wahid (popularly known as Gus Dur), Chairman of the Nahdlatul Ulama (Indonesia's largest Muslim organisation) as new President

2001
23 July - following a special session of the MPR Wahid is impeached and removed as President. Megawati Soekarnoputri (daughter of Soekarno) becomes Indonesia's fifth President
21 November - Special Autonomy Bill for the province of Papua comes into effect
20 December - The Indonesian government brokers an agreement between the warring factions in Sulawesi to end the fighting

2002
1 January - Special Autonomy Bill for the province of Aceh comes into effect
12 January - The Indonesian government brokers an agreement between the warring factions in the Moluccas to end the fighting
10 August - The Indonesian Parliament passes legislation that will enable Indonesians to elect their President and Vice-President for the first time
12 October - Terrorist bomb blast kills 202, mostly tourists, in Bali night club
9 December - Indonesian government and Free Aceh Movement (GAM) sign a Cessation of Hostilities Agreement (COHA)

2003
18 May - Talks in Tokyo between the Indonesian government and GAM break down.
19 May - President Megawati declares martial law in Aceh, and military action begins
5 August - Terrorist bomb blast kills 11 at the Marriott Hotel in Jakarta

2004
19 May - Martial law in Aceh lifted and control returned to civilian administration
5 July - First round of the Presidential Elections
9 September – Terrorist bomb blast kills nine outside Australian Embassy in Jakarta
20 September - Second round of the Presidential Elections
4 October - Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono is announced as the winner of the Presidential elections
26 December - Earthquake and tsunami kills over 126, 000 people on Aceh and North Sumatra

2005
28 March - Major earthquake off the Island of Nias kills up to 1000 people.

2006
27 May - a major earthquake caused serious damage and loss of life in the Yogyakarta and Central Java provinces. The earthquake measured 6.2 on the Richter scale, killed more than 5,700 people, and injured between 37,000 and 50,000

2008
27 January – Former President Soeharto dies.

BARACK OBAMA 2008

On November 4, 2008, 47-year-old Barack Obama was elected to be the 44th President of the United States, after a hard-fought two-year presidential campaign. Obama (D-IL) was elected to the U.S. Senate on November 2, 2004, after serving 7 years as an Illinois state senator. He's the author of two best-selling books. Obama was named by Time magazine in 2005, 2007 and 2008 as one of the 100 most influential people in the world.

Notable:

On February 10, 2007, Barack Obama declared his candidacy for the 2008 Democratic nomination for the presidency. Obama first rose to national prominence when he delivered an inspiring keynote speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention. On June 3, 2008, Obama accumulated enough Democratic convention delegates votes to become the presumptive party nominee for the presidential race. In 2004, Sen. Obama signed a $1.9 million deal to author 3 books. The first, "The Audacity of Hope,", discusses his political convictions. The second book will be co-written with his wife. His 1995 autobiography was a bestseller.

The Obama Persona:

Barack Obama is a independent-minded leader with an even-keel temperament and charismatic speaking skills. He's also a talented, introspective writer. His values and goals are strongly shaped by his expertise as a Constitutional law professor and civil rights attorney, and by Christianity. While private by nature, Obama mingles easily with others, but is most comfortable addressing large crowds. Unlike most politicos, Obama is known for being unafraid to speak and hear hard truths when necessary. Although armed with shrewd political sensibilities, he's sometimes slow to recognize viable threats to his agenda.

Major Areas of Interest:

Sen. Obama's areas of special legislative interest have been in support for working families, public education, health care, economic growth and jobs creation, and ending the Iraq War. As an Illinois state senator, he worked passionately for ethics reforms and criminal justice reform. In 2002, Obama publicly opposed the Bush Administration's push for the Iraq War, but supported war in Afghanistan.

Senate Committees in the 110th Congress:

• Committee on Foreign Relations
• Subcommittee on African Affairs
• Subcommittee on International Economic Policy
• Subcommittee on Asians and Pacific Affairs
• Committee on Veterans' Affairs
• Committee on Health, Education, Labor & Pensions
• Committee on Homeland Security & Governmental Affairs

Practical, Progressive Thinking on the Issues:

In 2002, Barack Obama publicly opposed the Iraq War, and continues to call for withdrawal of US troops from Iraq. He urges universal health care, and if elected president, promises implementation by the end of his first term. Barack Obama's voting record and stances as US Senator and Illinois State Senator reflect a "practical, common sense progressive" thinker who emphasizes increased support for teachers, college affordability, and restoration of meaningful federal support of veterans. Obama opposes privatization of Social Security.

Prior Experience:

Barack Obama served 7 years as an Illinois State Senator, resigning to assume U.S. Senate responsibilities. He also worked as a community organizer and a civil rights attorney. The Senator is a Senior Lecturer in Constitutional Law at University of Chicago Law School. After law school, he aggressively organized one of the largest voter registration drives in Chicago history to help Bill Clinton's 1992 election.

Personal Data:

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  Birth - August 4, 1961 in Honolulu, Hawaii




• 
  
  
  
  Education - B.A. in international relations, 1983, Columbia University. J.D. from Harvard Law School, where he was Editor of the Harvard Law Review




• 
  
  
  
  Family - Married on October 18, 1992 to Michelle Robinson, a Chicago native, also a




• 
  
  
  
  Harvard Law School graduate. Two young daughters, Malia and Sasha.




• 
  
  
  
  Faith - Christian, United Church of Christ




• 
  
  
  
  Shen the Senate is in session, Obama returns to their Chicago home from D.C. every weekend. Obama is a Chicago White Sox and Chicago Bears fan, and an avid basketball player.

Growing Up Barack Obama:

Born Barrack Hussein Obama, Jr, son of a Kenya-born Harvard-educated economist and Ann Dunham, a caucasian anthropologist, was 2 years old when his father left them. His father (deceased in 1982) returned to Kenya, and only saw his son once more. His mother remarried, and moved Barack to Indonesia. He returned to Hawaii at age 10 to live with his maternal grandparents. He graduated from the respected Punahou School with honors. As a teenager, he scooped ice cream at Baskins-Robbins, and has admitted to dabbling in marijuana and cocaine. His mother died of cancer in 1995.

Memorable Quotes :

"You can't have No Child Left Behind if you leave the money behind."

"I do agree that the Democrats have been intellectually lazy in failing to take the core ideals of the Democratic Party and adapting them to circumstances.... It's not just a matter of sticking in a quote from the Bible into a stock speech."

"There has yet to be a serious conversation about health care on the floor of the United States Senate."

"...as parents, we need to find the time and the energy to step in and find ways to help our kids love reading. We can read to them, talk to them about what they're reading and make time for this by turning off the TV ourselves. Libraries can help parents with this. Knowing the constraints we face from busy schedules and a TV culture, we need to think outside the box here - to dream big like we always have in America.

Right now, children come home from their first doctor's appointment with an extra bottle of formula. But imagine if they came home with their first library card or their first copy of Goodnight Moon? What if it was as easy to get a book as it is to rent a DVD or pick up McDonalds? What if instead of a toy in every Happy Meal, there was a book? What if there were portable libraries that rolled through parks and playgrounds like ice cream trucks? Or kiosks in stores where you could borrow books?

What if during the summer, when kids often lose much of the reading progress they've made during the year, every child had a list of books they had to read and talk about and an invitation to a summer reading club at the local library? Libraries have a special role to play in our knowledge economy." -- June 27, 2005 Speech to the American Library Association

George Washington 1789 - 1797

On April 30, 1789, George Washington, standing on the balcony of Federal Hall on Wall Street in New York, took his oath of office as the first President of the United States. "As the first of every thing, in our situation will serve to establish a Precedent," he wrote James Madison, "it is devoutly wished on my part, that these precedents may be fixed on true principles."

Born in 1732 into a Virginia planter family, he learned the morals, manners, and body of knowledge requisite for an 18th century Virginia gentleman.

He pursued two intertwined interests: military arts and western expansion. At 16 he helped survey Shenandoah lands for Thomas, Lord Fairfax. Commissioned a lieutenant colonel in 1754, he fought the first skirmishes of what grew into the French and Indian War. The next year, as an aide to Gen. Edward Braddock, he escaped injury although four bullets ripped his coat and two horses were shot from under him.

From 1759 to the outbreak of the American Revolution, Washington managed his lands around Mount Vernon and served in the Virginia House of Burgesses. Married to a widow, Martha Dandridge Custis, he devoted himself to a busy and happy life. But like his fellow planters, Washington felt himself exploited by British merchants and hampered by British regulations. As the quarrel with the mother country grew acute, he moderately but firmly voiced his resistance to the restrictions.

When the Second Continental Congress assembled in Philadelphia in May 1775, Washington, one of the Virginia delegates, was elected Commander in Chief of the Continental Army. On July 3, 1775, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, he took command of his ill-trained troops and embarked upon a war that was to last six grueling years.

He realized early that the best strategy was to harass the British. He reported to Congress, "we should on all Occasions avoid a general Action, or put anything to the Risque, unless compelled by a necessity, into which we ought never to be drawn." Ensuing battles saw him fall back slowly, then strike unexpectedly. Finally in 1781 with the aid of French allies--he forced the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown.

Washington longed to retire to his fields at Mount Vernon. But he soon realized that the Nation under its Articles of Confederation was not functioning well, so he became a prime mover in the steps leading to the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia in 1787. When the new Constitution was ratified, the Electoral College unanimously elected Washington President

He did not infringe upon the policy making powers that he felt the Constitution gave Congress. But the determination of foreign policy became preponderantly a Presidential concern. When the French Revolution led to a major war between France and England, Washington refused to accept entirely the recommendations of either his Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, who was pro-French, or his Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, who was pro-British. Rather, he insisted upon a neutral course until the United States could grow stronger.

To his disappointment, two parties were developing by the end of his first term. Wearied of politics, feeling old, he retired at the end of his second. In his Farewell Address, he urged his countrymen to forswear excessive party spirit and geographical distinctions. In foreign affairs, he warned against long-term alliances.

Washington enjoyed less than three years of retirement at Mount Vernon, for he died of a throat infection December 14, 1799. For months the Nation mourned him.